Estrogen Improves Endothelium-Dependent, Flow-Mediated Vasodilation in Postmenopausal Women

  1. Eric H. Lieberman, MD;
  2. Marie D. Gerhard, MD;
  3. Akimi Uehata, MD;
  4. Brian W. Walsh, MD;
  5. Andrew P. Selwyn, MD;
  6. Peter Ganz, MD;
  7. Alan C. Yeung, MD; and
  8. Mark A. Creager, MD
  1. From Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts; Mt. Sinai Hospital, Miami, Florida; National Defence Medical College, Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan; and Stanford University Medical Center, Stanford, California. Requests for Reprints: Mark A. Creager, MD, Cardiovascular Division, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 75 Francis Street, Boston, MA 02115. Grant Support: By the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (grants HL02663, HL38780, and HL02566).
     
    Next Section

    Abstract

    Objective: To assess the effect of estrogen replacement therapy on endothelium-dependent vasodilation in postmenopausal women.

    Design: Double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over trial.

    Setting: University medical center.

    Patients: 13 postmenopausal women aged 44 to 69 years (average age, 55 ±7 years).

    Intervention: Patients were randomly assigned to receive placebo, oral estradiol at a dose of 1 mg/d, and oral estradiol at a dose of 2 mg/d. Each treatment phase lasted 9 weeks.

    Measurements: High-resolution ultrasonography was used to measure vascular reactivity in a peripheral conduit vessel, the brachial artery. Endothelium-dependent vasodilation was determined by measuring the change in brachial artery diameter during increases in flow induced by reactive hyperemia. Endothelium-independent vasodilation was measured after sublingual nitroglycerin was administered.

    Results: Flow-mediated, endothelium-dependent vasodilation of the brachial artery was greater when patients received estradiol (13.5% and 11.6% for 1-mg and 2-mg doses, respectively) than when patients received placebo (6.8%; P < 0.05 for each dose compared with placebo). In contrast, estrogen administration had no effect on endothelium-independent vasodilation as assessed by sublingual nitroglycerin.

    Conclusion: Short-term estrogen replacement therapy improves flow-mediated endothelium-dependent vasodilation in postmenopausal women. This improvement may be mediated by a direct effect of estrogen on vascular function or may be induced through modification of lipoprotein metabolism.

    Coronary artery disease is the leading cause of death among women in the United States, accounting for 23% of all deaths [1, 2]. The incidence of coronary artery disease in women aged 35 to 44 years is 1 per 1000, increasing to 4 per 1000 in women aged 45 to 54 years [3, 4]. Among women in their fifth decade, the incidence of coronary artery disease is one half that of men. By the sixth decade, however, women and men have the same incidence of coronary disease [2, 5, 6]. This disparity between premenopausal women and men of similar age suggests that endogenous sex hormones such as estrogen may have a significant cardioprotective influence. In postmenopausal women, estrogen replacement therapy independently decreases the risk for cardiovascular events and mortality [6, 7]. Estrogen therapy limited the uptake of cholesterol ester into the arterial wall and attenuated the development of dietary-induced atherosclerosis in monkeys and baboons that had ovariectomy [8-10]. Angiographic studies have consistently found less coronary artery disease in women who receive estrogen replacement therapy [7, 11, 12].

    Beneficial effects of estrogen replacement therapy include its ability to reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels and increase high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol levels [13]. Nonetheless, multiple regression analyses suggest that only 25% to 50% of the reduction in cardiovascular events is attributable to the lipid-lowering effects of estrogen replacement therapy [14], suggesting that other mechanisms contribute to its cardioprotective potential. One such mechanism may involve the effect of estrogen on vascular function. Specifically, estrogen may directly enhance the activity of the endothelium-derived relaxing factor nitric oxide [10, 15-17] and thereby lessen the potential for coronary vasoconstriction and thrombosis [18-21]. When administered to rabbits that had ovariectomy, long-term estrogen replacement improved endothelium-dependent relaxation in vitro [15, 16]. In addition, both short-term and long-term estrogen administration improves in vivo the endothelium-dependent vasodilation in coronary arteries of atherosclerotic cynomolgus monkeys that had ovariectomy [10, 17]. Several recent studies have suggested that short-term estrogen administration improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation of the coronary arteries of postmenopausal women [22, 23].

    We hypothesized that long-term estrogen administration would improve vasomotor function in postmenopausal women. Accordingly, we conducted a double-blind, randomized, crossover, placebo-controlled trial to assess the effect of estrogen replacement therapy on endothelium-dependent vasodilation in postmenopausal women. We used high-resolution ultrasonography to serially assess vasomotor function in a peripheral conduit vessel, the brachial artery.

    Previous SectionNext Section

    Methods

    Patients

    The patients enrolled in this study were recruited from a larger cohort that was participating in a clinical research trial investigating the effect of estrogen replacement therapy on lipoprotein metabolism. Thirteen postmenopausal women aged 44 to 69 years (average age, 55 ±7 years) participated in this study. Women were eligible if menopause had occurred at least 1 year previously. Menopause was confirmed by measuring serum follicle-stimulating hormone levels. No patient had received hormone replacement therapy for at least 2 months before the study began. A history and physical examination were done to exclude persons with clinical evidence of coronary or peripheral atherosclerosis. Initial evaluation included a Papanicolaou smear (if not done in past year), complete blood count, routine chemistry panel, and lipid profile. Inclusion criteria included mild hypercholesterolemia, defined as a serum cholesterol level of 5.17 mmol/L to 6.20 mmol/L and an LDL cholesterol level of 3.36 mmol/L to 4.13 mmol/L. Exclusion criteria included hypertension, diabetes mellitus, tobacco use, obesity (body weight > 135% of ideal weight), history of breast or uterine cancer, thromboembolism, and liver or renal disease.

    Eligible patients were placed on a low-cholesterol diet (American Heart Association phase I) for 6 weeks before randomization. Patients were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups: placebo, oral 17 β-estradiol (Estrace, Mead Johnson, Evansville, Indiana.) at a dose of 1 mg/d, or oral 17 β-estradiol at a dose of 2 mg/d. At the conclusion of each 9-week treatment period, the patients were given progesterone (Provera, Upjohn, Kalamazoo, Michigan) at 10 mg/d for 10 days. Hormone replacement therapy was discontinued for 3 weeks before patients crossed over to the next treatment regimen. All patients received placebo and the two doses of estrogen in random order. Vascular function studies (described below) were done during the eighth or ninth week of each treatment period.

    Experimental Protocol

    Studies were done in a temperature-controlled vascular research laboratory. All patients were placed in the supine position. We studied vascular reactivity in a conduit vessel, the brachial artery, as previously described. An imaging study of the brachial artery was done using a high-resolution ultrasound machine (Toshiba, Model SSA-270, Otawara-shir, Tochigi-Ken, Japan) that was equipped with a 7.5 MHz linear-array transducer. Baseline images of the brachial artery were obtained proximal to the antecubital fossa. Imaging of the artery was done longitudinally, allowing clear visualization of the posterior wall intima-lumen interface and the anterior wall media-adventitial interface. We assessed endothelium-dependent vasodilation by measuring the change in the caliber of the brachial artery during reactive hyperemia, a maneuver that increases flow through the conduit segment being studied (flow-mediated vasodilation). To create this stimulus, a cuff placed on the upper arm was inflated to suprasystolic pressure for 5 minutes, thereby occluding flow to the forearm. This results in dilatation of downstream forearm resistance vessels. After cuff deflation, reactive hyperemia occurs, as brachial artery blood flow increases to accommodate the dilated resistance vessels. Imaging of the brachial artery was continually done for the 5-minute period after cuff deflation until basal conditions were re-established. Thereafter, sublingual nitroglycerin (at a dose of 0.4 mg) was administered to assess endothelium-independent vasodilation. The artery was studied for an additional 5 minutes. Blood pressure and heart rate were monitored continuously throughout the procedure.

    All images were recorded on Super VHS videotape for subsequent analysis. Image analysis was done on a personal computer that was equipped with a video frame grabber. Images recorded on videotape were analyzed by an investigator blinded to treatment assignment. Previous studies have shown that the peak diameter change during reactive hyperemia occurs approximately 1 minute after cuff deflation and 3 minutes after nitroglycerin administration [41]. We used these time points in our study. Images corresponding to the end of the T wave on a simultaneous electrocardiograph were selected and digitized. Image analysis was then done using a proprietary analysis software that searched for the shortest distance between the points on the arterial wall, creating 10 to 20 paired measurements along a 10-mm length. We measured arterial diameter from the intima-lumen interface on the posterior wall to the media-adventitial interface on the anterior wall. We calculated brachial artery diameter by averaging these paired lumen measurements and reported them in millimeters using calibration factors derived from real-time ultrasonography. We used an average of three separate measurements for each condition. In our laboratory, this technique has a variability of only 0.0 ±0.1 mm [24].

    To assure that the blood flow stimulus during reactive hyperemia was similar during each treatment phase, forearm blood flow was measured by venous occlusion strain gauge plethysmography using calibrated mercury-in-silastic strain gauges as previously described [25].

    Statistical Analysis

    The variables compared during the placebo period and during therapy with each dose of estrogen included blood pressure, heart rate, forearm blood flow, basal brachial artery diameter, and the percentage increase in diameter during reactive hyperemia and after patients received sublingual nitroglycerin. Values are expressed as the mean ±SE. For statistical analysis, we used repeated-measure analysis of variance and the Scheffe-F post hoc test [26]. Significance was accepted at P ≤ 0.05.

    Previous SectionNext Section

    Results

    Baseline Hemodynamic Measurements

    The effect of estrogen treatment on blood pressure, heart rate, forearm blood flow and forearm vascular resistance is presented in Table 1. Estrogen therapy did not affect blood pressure or heart rate. Basal forearm blood flow tended to be higher during both estrogen treatment phases (P = 0.08). Basal forearm vascular resistance was similar during all three treatment phases. The peak forearm blood flow during reactive hyperemia was similar during placebo receipt and each estrogen treatment period. However, peak forearm blood flow was greater when patients received the 1-mg dose of estradiol than when they received the 2-mg dose (P = 0.05).

    View this table:
    Table 1. Effect of Estrogen Replacement on Hemodynamic Measurements

    Flow-Mediated Endothelium-Dependent Vasodilation

    We obtained technically adequate ultrasound images during reactive hyperemia for 12 of the 13 patients. The brachial artery diameter, under basal conditions, measured 3.5 mm, 3.4 mm, and 3.3 mm while patients received placebo, estradiol at 1 mg/d, and estradiol at 2 mg/d, respectively (P > 0.2). The percentage increase in brachial artery diameter during reactive hyperemia for each treatment period is shown in Figure 1. The change in brachial artery diameter was greater when patients received estradiol treatment (13.5% and 11.6% for 1-and 2-mg doses, respectively) than when they received placebo (6.8%, P < 0.001 by analysis of variance; P < 0.05 for each dose by post hoc testing). We observed no difference between the two estrogen treatment periods in the vasodilative response of the brachial artery.

    Figure 1. Oral estradiol at 1 mg/d and at 2 mg/d significantly increased the brachial artery diameter during a flow stimulus induced by reactive hyperemia ( < 0.05 for each dose compared with placebo).
    View larger version:
    Figure 1. Oral estradiol at 1 mg/d and at 2 mg/d significantly increased the brachial artery diameter during a flow stimulus induced by reactive hyperemia ( < 0.05 for each dose compared with placebo). Effect of estradiol on flow-mediated, endothelium-dependent vasodilation in 12 postmenopausal women.P

    Effect of Estrogen Replacement Therapy on Brachial Artery Responses to Sublingual Nitroglycerin

    Seven patients received nitroglycerin during all three treatment phases. Four of the patients received nitroglycerin at least once but refused further doses during subsequent visits because of an adverse reaction (symptomatic hypotension, severe headache) at the previous visit. Two patients refused nitroglycerin at all three visits. Estrogen administration had no significant effect on endothelium-independent vasodilation. Nitroglycerin increased brachial artery diameter 12.3% when patients received placebo, 14.2% when they received estradiol at 1 mg/d, and 16.5% when they received estradiol at 2 mg/d (P > 0.2).

    Effect of Estrogen Replacement Therapy on Total Cholesterol Levels

    The patients we studied are part of a larger cohort of postmenopausal women who are participating in a study to assess the effect of estrogen replacement therapy on lipoprotein metabolism. The results of that trial are being reported separately. Among the patients we describe in this report, estrogen did not significantly affect the total cholesterol level, which was 5.66 mmol/L when patients received placebo, 5.40 mmol/L when they received estradiol at 1 mg/d, and 5.23 mmol/L when they received estradiol at 2 mg/d, respectively (P = 0.12).

    Previous SectionNext Section

    Discussion

    The new finding in our study is that sustained estrogen replacement therapy improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in postmenopausal women. Daily administration of estradiol at a dose of either 1 mg or 2 mg increased flow-mediated vasodilation in the brachial artery after 9 weeks of therapy. These observations were made on a peripheral artery, were unaffected by atherosclerosis, and have important implications on the effect of estrogen on endothelial function in other vessels.

    Endothelium-Dependent Vasodilation

    Laboratory experiments using arterial strips have shown that a normal endothelium produces a local short-lived substance, endothelium-derived relaxing factor, which is either nitric oxide or a related nitrosothiol [27-29]. Endothelium-derived relaxing factor is released in response to various chemical stimuli (for example, acetylcholine, serotonin, thrombin, and substance P) and physical factors (for example, blood flow, shear stress, and pulsatile pressure) [30]. This vasodilator mechanism opposes the constrictor actions of hormones, neurotransmitters, and platelet-release products.

    Endothelium-dependent relaxation is abnormal in conduit and resistance vessels of humans with atherosclerosis [18-20, 31]. Reduced levels of endothelium-derived nitric oxide may contribute to the pathogenesis of myocardial ischemia and infarction by facilitating coronary vasoconstriction and thrombosis. Reduced activity of endothelium-derived relaxing factor may also be involved in atherogenesis because nitric oxide normally inhibits platelet adhesion and aggregation, leukocyte adhesion to the endothelial surface, and vascular smooth-muscle proliferation [21, 32-35]. Indeed, persons with risk factors for atherosclerosis show abnormalities of endothelium-dependent vasodilation, even before the development of atherosclerosis and in vessels devoid of atherosclerosis. We and others have reported previously that endothelial function is abnormal in forearm resistance vessels of patients with hypercholesterolemia, diabetes mellitus, and hypertension [25, 36-38]. Using ultrasonography, Celermajer and colleagues [39, 40] reported that flow-mediated vasodilation of the brachial artery is abnormal in persons with hypercholesterolemia, in those who smoke cigarettes, and in those with coronary artery disease. We have found that reduced brachial artery flow-mediated vasodilation correlates closely with functional abnormalities of the coronary endothelium [41]. Preliminary studies in our laboratory have shown that flow-mediated vasodilation in the brachial artery is mediated by endothelium-derived nitric oxide because it is inhibited by the nitric oxide synthase antagonist, nG-monomethyl-l-arginine. High-resolution ultrasonography is a reproducible technique for measuring brachial artery diameter [24]; we were thus able to use this noninvasive method to study the effect of estrogen replacement on endothelium-dependent vasomotion in postmenopausal women.

    Localization of estrogen receptors on vascular endothelium and smooth-muscle cells of several mammalian species suggests that these hormones may influence vascular function [42-44]. Short-term administration of estrogen improved endothelium-dependent vasodilation of atherosclerotic coronary arteries in monkeys that had ovariectomy and in postmenopausal women when studied in vivo [17, 22, 23]. Long-term estrogen treatment improved in vivo the endothelium-dependent relaxation of atherosclerotic femoral arteries excised from rabbits that had ovariectomy and of atherosclerotic coronary arteries in monkeys that had ovariectomy [10, 15, 16]. High levels of total serum cholesterol and LDL cholesterol and low levels of HDL cholesterol are associated with reduced endothelium-dependent vasodilation [24, 45, 46]. Estrogen increases HDL cholesterol and lowers LDL cholesterol levels and thereby might be expected to improve endothelium-dependent relaxation in patients with lipid disorders [13]. The short-term effects of estrogen on vascular function (that is, in the absence of lipid changes) suggest, however, that additional mechanisms must be involved. In our patients, we observed no significant effect of estrogen treatment on total cholesterol level. Our study, however, did not have the power to address the possibility that estrogen altered one or more lipid fractions that are important in atherogenesis. Our participants are part of a larger cohort of persons in whom the effect of estrogen on lipid metabolism is being studied. Therefore, we cannot discount the possibility that a modest decrease in cholesterol levels contributed to the favorable effect of estrogens on endothelial function that we observed in our study.

    Mechanisms of Endothelium-Dependent Vasodilation

    Conceptually, estrogen could improve endothelium-dependent vasodilation by increasing synthesis and release of nitric oxide, by inhibiting its degradation, or by altering the balance of vasodilator and vasoconstrictor prostaglandins. For example, estrogen may increase the release of nitric oxide through up-regulation of muscarinic receptors [47]. Also, the antioxidant properties of estrogen might stabilize nitric oxide and prevent its inactivation, explaining how vasodilative effects can be observed within minutes of the administration [48]. Recently, Keaney and colleagues [49] reported that estrogen replacement increased resistance to LDL oxidation and improved endothelium-dependent vasodilation in swine that had ovariectomy.

    Estrogen may also influence vascular tone through effects on other endothelium-derived vasoactive substances. Several but not all studies have also shown that estrogens stimulate the production of vasodilator prostaglandins and reduce the effects of vasoconstricting prostanoids [15, 50, 51]. Estrogen also attenuates vasoconstriction to endothelin-1 [52]. In isolated canine coronary arteries, estrogen administration eliminates induced-action potentials and causes cell membrane hyperpolarization.

    Implications for Estrogen Dosing

    Our findings support the use of estrogen replacement therapy to improve endothelial function but do not enable us to recommend a specific dose of estrogen. The similar responses seen with the 1- and 2-mg dosages of estradiol suggest that the observations were made at the plateau region of the dose-response curve. We are hopeful that lower doses will be effective because clinical use of higher doses of estrogen may increase the risk for endometrial cancer [53, 54]. In addition, we cannot comment on whether the addition of progesterone will alter the favorable effects of estrogen on endothelium-dependent vasodilation.

    Study Limitations

    Our study design has several limitations. First, all the participants had mild hypercholesterolemia because they were recruited from a larger study examining the effect of estrogen on lipid metabolism. Thus, the results cannot necessarily be extrapolated to postmenopausal women whose cholesterol levels are entirely within normal limits. Furthermore, we cannot be certain that the effect of estrogen on endothelium-dependent vasodilation occurred as a result of its lipid-lowering effects and not as a direct effect of estrogen on the release or activity of endothelium-derived nitric oxide. Second, we do not discount the likelihood that these persons had occult atherosclerosis. To avoid the confounding effects of atherosclerosis, we chose women who had no historical or clinical evidence of coronary artery disease, peripheral arterial occlusive disease, or cerebrovascular disease. Furthermore, we studied a conduit vessel from an extremity that is infrequently affected by atherosclerosis and used a technique that would have enabled us to detect intimal thickening or plaque formation if it were present. Third, we cannot exclude a carry-over effect of estradiol in this crossover trial. If this were the case, our findings are even more impressive because a carry-over effect would have the potential of enhancing flow-mediated vasodilation during placebo receipt and therefore lessen the distinction between placebo receipt and estrogen treatment periods. Finally, one might argue that too few patients received nitroglycerin to enable us to distinguish an effect of estrogen on endothelium-independent vasodilation. Nonetheless, the average difference between treatment groups observed after nitroglycerin treatment was considerably less than that observed during reactive hyperemia, indicating that any effect of estrogen on endothelium-independent vasodilation by nitroglycerin would be small.

    Previous SectionNext Section

    Conclusions

    Our study shows that estrogen replacement therapy improves flow-mediated endothelium-dependent vasomotion in postmenopausal women with mild hypercholesterolemia. Further investigation is warranted to enhance our understanding of the mechanisms of the effect of estrogen on vascular function and to determine whether its effect on endothelial function contributes to reduction in cardiovascular-related morbidity and mortality.

    Previous Section
     

    References

    1. 1.↵
      Centers for Disease Control. Years of life lost from cardiovascular disease. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1986; 35:653-4.
    2. 2.↵
      Barrett-Connor E, Bush TL. Estrogen and coronary heart disease in women. JAMA. 1991; 265:1861-7.
    3. 3.↵
      Kannel WB, Hjortland MC, McNamara PM, Gordan T. Menopause and the risk of cardiovascular disease: the Framingham study. Ann Intern Med. 1976; 85:47-52.
    4. 4.↵
      Lerner DJ, Kannel WB. Patterns of coronary heart disease morbidity and mortality in the sexes: a 26-year follow-up of the Framingham population. Am Heart J. 1986; 111:383-90.
    5. 5.↵
      Colditz GA, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Rosner B, Hennekens CH. Menopause and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med. 1987; 316:1105-10.
    6. 6.↵
      Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Manson JE, Rosner B, Speizer FE, et al. Postmenopausal estrogen therapy and cardiovascular disease. Ten-year follow-up from the nurses health study. N Engl J Med. 1991; 325:756-62.
    7. 7.↵
      Sullivan JM, Vander Zwaag R, Lemp GF, Hughes JP, Maddock V, Kroetz FW, et al. Postmenopausal estrogen use and coronary atherosclerosis. Ann Intern Med. 1988; 108:358-63.
    8. 8.↵
      Adams MR, Kaplan JR, Manuck SB, Koritnik DR, Parks JS, Wolfe MS, et al. Inhibition of coronary artery atherosclerosis by 17-β estradiol in ovariectomized monkeys. Lack of an effect of added progesterone. Arteriosclerosis. 1990; 10:1051-7.
    9. 9.↵
      Kushwaha RS, Lewis DS, Carey KD, McGill HC Jr. Effects of estrogen and progesterone on plasma lipoproteins and experimental atherosclerosis in the baboon (Papio sp.). Arterioscler Thromb. 1991; 11:23-31.
    10. 10.↵
      Williams JK, Adams MR, Klopfenstein HS. Estrogen modulates responses of atherosclerotic coronary arteries. Circulation. 1990; 81:1680-7.
    11. 11.↵
      Gruchow HW, Anderson AJ, Barboriak JJ, Sobocinski KA. Postmenopausal use of estrogen and occlusion of coronary arteries. Am Heart J. 1988; 115:954-63.
    12. 12.↵
      Hong MK, Romm PA, Reagan K, Green CE, Rackley CE. Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on serum lipid values and angiographically defined coronary artery disease in postmenopausal women. Am J Cardiol. 1992; 69:176-8.
    13. 13.↵
      Walsh BW, Schiff I, Rosner B, Greenberg L, Ravnikar V, Sacks F. Effects of postmenopausal estrogen replacement on the concentrations and metabolism of plasma lipoproteins. N Engl J Med. 1991; 325:1196-204.
    14. 14.↵
      Bush TL, Barrett-Connor E, Cowan LD, Criqui MH, Wallace RB, Suchindran CM, et al. Cardiovascular mortality and noncontraceptive use of estrogen in women: results from the Lipid Research Clinics Program Follow-up Study. Circulation. 1987; 75:1102-9.
    15. 15.↵
      Gisclard V, Miller VM, Vanhoutte PM. Effect of 17 β-estradiol on endothelium-dependent responses in the rabbit. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1988; 244:19-22.
    16. 16.↵
      Miller VM, Gisclard V, Vanhoutte PM. Modulation of endothelium-dependent and vascular smooth muscle responses by estrogens. Phlebology. 1988; 3:63-9.
    17. 17.↵
      Williams JK, Adams MR, Herrington DM, Clarkson TB. Short-term administration of estrogen and vascular responses of atherosclerotic coronary arteries. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1992; 20:452-7.
    18. 18.↵
      Ludmer PL, Selwyn AP, Shook TL, Wayne RR, Mudge GH, Alexander RW, et al. Paradoxical vasoconstrictor induced by acetylcholine in atherosclerotic coronary arteries. N Engl J Med. 1986; 315:1046-51.
    19. 19.↵
      Cox DA, Vita JA, Treasure CB, Fish RD, Alexander RW, Ganz P, et al. Atherosclerosis impairs flow-mediated dilation of coronary arteries in humans. Circulation. 1989; 80:458-65.
    20. 20.↵
      Zeiher AM, Drexler H, Wollschlager H, Just H. Endothelial dysfunction of the coronary microvasculature is associated with impaired coronary blood flow regulation in patients with early atherosclerosis. Circulation. 1991; 84:1984-92.
    21. 21.↵
      Radomski MW, Palmer RM, Moncada S. Endogenous nitric oxide inhibits human platelet adhesion to vascular endothelium. Lancet. 1987; 2:1057-8.
    22. 22.↵
      Reis SE, Gloth ST, Blumenthal RS, Resar JR, Zacur HA, Gerstenblith G, et al. Ethinyl estradiol acutely attenuates abnormal coronary vasomotor responses to acetylcholine in postmenopausal women. Circulation. 1994; 89:52-60.
    23. 23.↵
      Lieberman EH, Gerhard M, Yeung AC, Anderson TJ, Meredith IT, Ganz P, et al. Estrogen improves coronary vasomotor responses to acetylcholine in post menopausal women (Abstract). Circulation. 1993; 88:I79.
    24. 24.↵
      Uehata A, Lieberman EH, Meredith IT, Anderson TJ, Polak J, Ganz P, et al. Non-invasive assessment of flow-mediated vasodilation in brachial arteries: Diminished response in young males compared to females (Abstract). Circulation. 1992; 86:I620.
    25. 25.↵
      Creager MA, Cooke JP, Mendelsohn ME, Gallagher SJ, Coleman SM, Loscalzo J, et al. Impaired vasodilation of forearm resistance vessels in hypercholesterolemic humans. J Clin Invest. 1990; 86:228-34.
    26. 26.↵
      Kleinman DG, Kupper LL, Muller KE. Applied Regression Analysis and Other Multivariable Methods. Belmont, California: Duxbury Press; 1988.
    27. 27.↵
      Furchgott RF, Zawadzki JV. The obligatory role of endothelial cells in the relaxation of arterial smooth muscle by acetylcholine. Nature. 1980; 288:373-6.
    28. 28.↵
      Griffith TM, Edwards DH, Lewis MJ, Newby AC, Henderson AH. The nature of endothelium-derived vascular relaxant factor. Nature. 1984; 308:645-7.
    29. 29.↵
      Palmer RM, Ferrige AG, Moncada S. Nitric oxide release accounts for the biological activity of endothelium-derived relaxing factor. Nature. 1987; 327:524-6.
    30. 30.↵
      Vanhoutte PM, Houston DS. Platelets, endothelium, and vasospasm. Circulation. 1985; 72:728-34.
    31. 31.↵
      Liao JK, Bettmann MA, Sandor T, Tucker JI, Coleman SM, Creager MA. Differential impairment of vasodilator responsiveness of peripheral resistance and conduit vessels in humans with atherosclerosis. Circ Res. 1991; 68:1027-34.
    32. 32.↵
      Busse R, Luckoff A, Bassenge E. Endothelium-derived relaxant factor inhibits platelet activation. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 1987; 336:566-71.
    33. 33.↵
      Garg UC, Hassid A. Nitric oxide-generating vasodilators and 8-bromo-cyclic guanosine monophosphate inhibit mitogenesis and proliferation of cultured rat vascular smooth muscle cells. J Clin Invest. 1989; 83:1774-7.
    34. 34.↵
      Simon DI, Stamler JS, Jaraki O, Keaney JF, Osborne JA, Francis SA, et al. Antiplatelet properties of protein S-nitrosothiols derived from nitric oxide and endothelium-derived relaxing factor. Arterioscler Thromb. 1993; 13:791-9.
    35. 35.↵
      Kubes P, Suzuki M, Granger DN. Nitric oxide: an endogenous modulator of leukocyte adhesion. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1991; 88:4651-5.
    36. 36.↵
      Johnstone MT, Creager SJ, Scales KM, Cusco JA, Lee BK, Creager MA. Impaired endothelium-dependent vasodilation in patients with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Circulation. 1993; 88:2510-6.
    37. 37.↵
      Linder L, Kiowski W, Buhler FR, Luscher TF. Indirect evidence for release of endothelium-derived relaxing factor in human forearm circulation in vivo. Blunted response in essential hypertension. Circulation. 1990; 81:1762-7.
    38. 38.↵
      Panza JA, Quyyumi AA, Brush JE Jr, Epstein SE. Abnormal endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation in patients with essential hypertension. N Engl J Med. 1990; 323:22-7.
    39. 39.↵
      Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Gooch VM, Spiegelhalter DJ, Miller OI, Sullivan ID, et al. Non-invasive detection of endothelial dysfunction in children and adults at risk of atherosclerosis. Lancet. 1992; 340:1111-5.
    40. 40.↵
      Celermajer DS, Sorensen KE, Georgakopoulos D, Bull C, Thomas O, Robinson J, et al. Cigarette smoking is associated with dose-related and potentially reversible impairment of endothelium-dependent dilation in healthy young adults. Circulation. 1993; 88:2149-55.
    41. 41.↵
      Uehata A, Gerhard MD, Meredith IT, Lieberman EH, Selwyn AP, Creager M, et al. Close relationship of endothelial dysfunction in coronary and brachial artery (Abstract). Circulation. 1993; 88:I618.
    42. 42.↵
      Colburn P, Buonassisi V. Estrogen binding sites in endothelial cell cultures. Science. 1978; 210:817-9.
    43. 43.↵
      McGill HC Jr, Sheridan PJ. Nuclear uptake of sex steroid hormones in the cardiovascular system of the baboon. Circ Res. 1981; 48:238-44.
    44. 44.↵
      Horwitz KB, Horwitz LD. Canine vascular tissues are targets for androgens, estrogens, progestins, and glucocorticoids. J Clin Invest. 1982; 69:750-8.
    45. 45.↵
      Vita JA, Treasure CB, Nabel EG, McLenachan JM, Fish RD, Yeung AC, et al. The coronary vasomotor response to acetylcholine related to risk factors to coronary artery disease. Circulation. 1990; 81:491-7.
    46. 46.↵
      Kuhn FE, Mohler ER, Satler LF, Reagan K, Lu DY, Rackley CE. Effects of high-density lipoprotein on acetylcholine-induced coronary vasoreactivity. Am J Cardiol. 1991; 68:1425-30.
    47. 47.↵
      Rainbow TC, Degroff V, Luine VH, McEwan BS. Estradiol 17 β increases the number of muscarinic receptors in hypothalamic nuclei. Brain Res. 1980; 198:239-43.
    48. 48.↵
      Yagi K, Komura S. Inhibitory effect of female hormones on lipid peroxidation. Biochem Int. 1986; 13:1051-5.
    49. 49.↵
      Keaney JF Jr, Shwaery GT, Xu A, Nicolosi J, Loscalzo J, Foxall TL, et al 17-β-estradial preserves endothelial vasodilator function and limits low-density lipoprotein oxidation in hypercholesterolemic swine. Circulation. 1994; 89:2251-9.
    50. 50.↵
      Miller VM, Vanhoutte PM. 17-β Estradiol augments endothelium-dependent contractions to arachidonic acid in the rabbit aorta. Am J Physiol. 1990; 258:R1502-7.
    51. 51.↵
      Chang WC, Nakao J, Orimo H, Murota SI. Stimulation of prostacyclin activity by estradiol in rat aorta smooth muscle cell in culture. Biochem Biophys Acta. 1980; 619:107-18.
    52. 52.↵
      Jiang C, Sarrel PM, Poole-Wilson PA, Collins P. Acute effects of 17-β estradiol on rabbit coronary artery contractile responses to endothelin-1. Am J Physiol. 1992; 263:H271-5.
    53. 53.↵
      Mack TM, Pike MC, Henderson BE, Pfeffer RI, Gerkins VR, Arthur M, et al. Estrogens and endometrial cancer in a retirement community. N Engl J Med. 1976; 294:1262-7.
    54. 54.↵
      McDonald TW, Annegers JF, O'Fallon WM, Dockerty MB, Malkasian GD Jr, Kurland LT. Exogenous estrogen and endometrial carcinoma: case–control and incidence study. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977; 127:527-79.
    « Previous | Next Article »Table of Contents

    This Article

    1. Ann Intern Med December 15, 1994 vol. 121 no. 12 936-941
    1. AbstractFREE
    2. Figures
    3. » Full Text
    4. Full Text (PDF)

    Rapid Responses

    1. Submit a response
    2. No responses published

    Navigate This Article

    Current Issue

    1. November 3, 2009, 151 (9)
    1. Alert me to current issues