I have received dozens of highly moving accounts from families directly affected by the events of 1938 in Vienna. The above three letters raise important questions on several aspects. First is the issue of Pernkopf and his atlas. In this work, the artists originally used Nazi symbols in their signatures that were removed from later editions. To characterize both Pernkopf and the Medical Faculty of the postwar period, it may be relevant to cite the official epitaph (published in the University's almanac in 1955), which makes no reference to the fact that Pernkopf supervised the "cleaning" of the Medical Faculty between 1938 and 1945. Referring to the time between 1945 and Pernkopf's death in 1955, the epitaph states, "He found a quiet place of work in the Institute of Neurology where he, after having suffered much hardship, carried on working on the completion of his major scientific work, the textbook and atlas of topographic anatomy." I believe that the reaction of Panush and Briggs is understandable. A large-scale, international investigation is currently under way to determine whether corpses of victims (Jews and others) were used in Pernkopf's institute.

Dr. Nevins discusses the historical reasons Vienna was dominated by Jews. I agree with Dr. Nevins that the reasons for this may be complex. The letter by Dr. Djaldetti reminds us that behind the dry statistics (for example, 78% of the members of the Faculty were fired) are the sufferings of human beings, shattered careers, uprooted families, and lost lives. The events of 1938 at the Faculty had an effect that extended far beyond Vienna. All the authors praise me for my paper—in fact, I have not received one critical response. I am not sure I deserve all this praise. It should go, I think, to the few Viennese physicians who had the courage to resist Nazism during the Third Reich.

It is important to realize that, by and large, the German and Austrian medical professions were not victimized by the Nazis but actively guided the developments leading to the monstrous disasters and unspeakable violations of ethical behavior [1]. The new generation of Austrian and German physicians should confront their "own" history. Collective shame (rather than collective guilt) should be, but often is not, the appropriate reaction.